This chapter explores how foreign invasions and new dynasties reshaped India's political boundaries, societal responses to invasions, economic adaptations, and the period's impact on people's lives from the 11th to 17th centuries.
The period covered is often called the latter part of the 'medieval period' of Indian history, meaning 'between two ages'.
European Medieval Period
The term 'medieval' was originally applied to European history, from the 5th century CE fall of the Roman Empire to the 14th-16th centuries Renaissance.
Applying 'Medieval' to India
Applying the term 'medieval' to India is not ideal due to different histories, and historians disagree on its exact coverage for India.
Indian Medieval Period Defined
For this context, 'medieval' simply means the period from the 11th to the 17th centuries in India.
Chapter Study Approach
The chapters aim to keep few dates, focusing on important reference points, and encourage revisiting timelines and maps for visualization.
Era of Invasions and Political Reshaping
A new era began in early 11th century India with unprecedented foreign invasions from beyond the Hindu Kush mountains, reshaping the political map.
Invader Origins and Motivations
Many invaders were Central Asian, Turkic or Afghan, drawn to India for riches, territorial ambitions, and often to spread their religion by force.
Key Historical Timelines
Important events occurred across several centuries, marking significant political and social shifts in India.
Delhi Sultanate Established
The Delhi Sultanate was established in 1206.
Mewar Kingdom Re-established
The Mewar Kingdom was re-established in 1326.
Vijayanagara Empire Established
The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336.
Bahmani Sultanate Established
The Bahmani Sultanate was established in 1347.
Timur Attacks Delhi
Timur attacked Delhi in 1398.
Portuguese Arrive in India
The Portuguese arrived in India in 1498.
First Battle of Panipat
Babur's victory in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 established the Mughal Empire.
Battle of Talikota
The Battle of Talikota in 1565 resulted in the destruction of Vijayanagara city.
Second Battle of Panipat
Akbar gained a decisive victory in the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556.
Battle of Haldighati
Maharana Pratap was forced to retreat at the Battle of Haldighati in 1576.
Battle of Saraighat
The Ahoms defeated the Mughals at the Battle of Saraighat in 1671.
Khalsa Formation
Guru Gobind Singh formed the Khalsa in 1699.
Maratha Control of Delhi
Maratha control of Delhi began in 1754.
Sikh Empire Established
The Sikh Empire was established in 1799.
Turkic Definition
Turkic refers to peoples, languages, and cultures historically associated with a vast region from Central Asia to Turkey and Siberia.
Spelling Variations Explained
Alternative spellings exist for Persian names due to transcription difficulties, such as 'Khalji'/'Khilji' and 'Mughal'/'Moghul'.
Rise and Fall of Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate began after the defeat of King Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192 and saw the rule of five successive foreign Turkic-Afghan dynasties.
Sultanate Definition
A Sultanate is a territory ruled by a 'Sultan,' a title adopted by some Muslim rulers.
Five Dynasties
The Delhi Sultanate included the Mamluks, Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis.
Resistance to Expansion
Neighboring kingdoms like the Eastern Gangas and Hoysalas resisted the Sultanate's advance and thrived as cultural centers.
Delhi's Political Role
The city of Delhi assumed a bigger role in the political landscape of northern India during this period.
Sultanate's Political Instability
The Sultanate period was marked by political instability, territorial expansion efforts, military campaigns, and violent successions.
Military Campaigns and Plunder
Military campaigns raided villages, cities, plundered, and destroyed temples and seats of learning.
Violent Successions
Almost two out of three sultans seized power by eliminating their predecessor.
Sultan's Average Reign
A sultan's average reign was hardly more than nine years.
Ala-ud-din Khilji's Campaigns
At the turn of the 14th century, Ala-ud-din Khilji conducted military campaigns in north and central India and repelled Mongol invasions.
Malik Kafur's Southern Expansion
Ala-ud-din Khilji's slave-general Malik Kafur expanded the Sultanate southward, conquering kingdoms and attacking Hindu centers.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Rule
Muhammad bin Tughlaq expanded the Delhi Sultanate's territories, bringing most of the Subcontinent under one ruler, though it was short-lived.
Poorly Executed Schemes
Muhammad bin Tughlaq had ambitious schemes, but they were often poorly executed, like moving the capital.
Capital Transfer
Moving the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad and back caused great loss of life according to some sources.
Token Currency Introduction
The introduction of token currency (cheap copper coins valued as silver/gold) created confusion and counterfeiting, causing economic decline.
Sultanate Wealth and Practices
Sultans and their court elite lived luxuriously, deriving wealth from plunder, taxes, and slave trade.
Sources of Wealth
Wealth came largely from plunder from military campaigns, taxes on common people and conquered regions, and slave trade.
Impact of Plunder
Plunder affected trade networks and agricultural production.
Iconoclasm During Sultanate
This period witnessed numerous attacks on sacred images in Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu temples, motivated by plunder and iconoclasm.
Iconoclasm Defined
Iconoclasm is the rejection or destruction of icons or religious images considered idolatrous.
Using Neutral Term 'Image'
The term 'image' is used instead of 'idol' or 'icon' because the latter are pejorative in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Classical Indian Terms
India's classical texts used words like mūrti, vigraha, pratimā, rūpa to designate images for worship.
Jizya Tax Imposed
Some sultans imposed the jizya, a tax on non-Muslim subjects for protection and military exemption.
Jizya Consequences
This discriminatory tax was a source of economic burden, public humiliation, and an incentive for conversion to Islam.
Timur's Devastating Invasion
At the end of the 14th century, Timur, a brutal Turkic-Mongol conqueror, invaded northwest India and launched a devastating attack on Delhi.
Timur's Objectives
Timur's two-fold objective was to wage 'war with the infidels' and 'to gain something by plundering the wealth of the infidels'.
Consequences for Delhi
Large numbers were killed or enslaved, and Delhi was left in ruins after Timur soon withdrew with huge plunder.
Infidel Definition
An 'infidel' literally means someone who does not share the faith of a given religion.
Lodis Emerge and Decline
In the aftermath of Timur's invasion, the Lodis emerged and established the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, whose territory had shrunk considerably.
Resistance to Delhi Sultanate
Throughout its rule, the Delhi Sultanate faced significant resistance from various Indian kingdoms.
Eastern Ganga Kingdom's Resistance
The Eastern Ganga kingdom of Kalinga, including parts of Odisha, Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh, successfully resisted the Sultanate's advance.
Narasimhadeva I's Achievements
Narasimhadeva I, a mid-13th century ruler, brought military strength and cultural brilliance to the kingdom, repelling Sultanate incursions.
Surya Temple at Konark
Narasimhadeva I built the famed Sūrya temple at Konark, partly to commemorate his victories.
Musunuri Nayakas Confederacy
Telugu chieftains, the Musunuri Nayakas, formed a confederacy of over 75 chieftains and expelled Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s army from Warangal around 1330-1336.
Hoysala Kingdom's Struggle
The Hoysalas ruled parts of southern India and fended off several Delhi Sultanate attacks, remaining independent for a time.
Hoysala Decline
Weakened by attacks and internal conflicts, the Hoysala kingdom declined and was absorbed into the Vijayanagara Empire in the mid-14th century.
Hoysalas' Emblem Story
Kannada folklore narrates the story of Sala fighting a lion to save his guru, giving the dynasty its name ‘Hoy (strike)! Sala’.
Rise of Regional Sultanates
The Delhi Sultanate also faced rebellions from emerging independent regional Sultanates, leading to complex alliances and frequent wars.
Bahmani Sultanate's Rise
The Bahmani Sultanate rose in the mid-14th century and controlled much of the Deccan for a while.
Other Powerful Sultanates
Powerful Sultanates also emerged in Gujarat and Bengal.
Mewar Kingdom's Resistance
Parts of Rajasthan, particularly the Mewar kingdom under Rana Kumbha in the 15th century, offered stiff resistance to the Delhi Sultanate.
Rana Title
Rana is a title often used for Rajput kings.
Kumbhalgarh Fort
Rana Kumbha built Kumbhalgarh Fort in the 15th century, famous for its massive 36-kilometre-long wall.
The Vijayanagara Empire
As the Delhi Sultanate weakened, a new center of power emerged in the south with the establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire in the 14th century.
Establishment by Harihara and Bukka
Two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, rejected Delhi’s authority and established an independent kingdom that grew into the Vijayanagara Empire.
Hampi's Symbolism
Folklore states that Harihara and Bukka established their capital at Hampi after witnessing a hare chase hounds, symbolizing unexpected strength.
Rivalries and Conflicts
The Vijayanagara Empire faced rivalry from the Bahmani Sultanate, which later fragmented into the Deccan Sultanates.
Deccan Sultanates
The Bahmani Sultanate fragmented into five independent states: Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar, and Bidar.
Battles with Neighbors
Vijayanagara rulers battled with Bijapur, Golconda, and the Gajapati rulers of Odisha.
Titles Signifying Power
The term 'pati,' meaning 'lord' or 'master,' was commonly used in titles like Narapati (Vijayanagara), Ashwapati (Bahmani), and Chhatrapati (Maratha).
Krishnadevaraya's Peak Rule
In the 16th century, the Vijayanagara Empire reached its peak under Krishnadevaraya, achieving military dominance and cultural renaissance.
Cultural Patronage
Krishnadevaraya patronised poets and scholars in Sanskrit, Telugu, and Kannada.
Āmuktamālyada Poem
He composed an epic poem in Telugu, Āmuktamālyada, which included a Rājanīti (royal policy) section on good governance.
Temple Grants
Krishnadevaraya provided grants to many temples, including Tirupati and the Vitthala temple in his capital.
Treatment of Portuguese Travellers
Portuguese travellers were well treated for trade, as the king desired horses and wanted to prevent sales to enemy kingdoms.
Domingo Paes's Description
Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes described Vijayanagara as a city 'as large as Rome', beautiful, with groves, water conduits, and countless people.
Decline of Vijayanagara
After Krishnadevaraya's death in 1529, the empire faced its downfall with the Battle of Talikota and subsequent fragmentation.
Battle of Talikota (1565)
In 1565, Deccan Sultanates formed a coalition, defeating Vijayanagara forces at the Battle of Talikota.
City's Destruction
The city of Vijayanagara was sacked over several months, with widespread destruction of buildings and massacre of civilians.
Empire Fragmentation
The empire fragmented into smaller regions ruled by Nayakas and came to an end in the mid-17th century.
The Mughals and Empire Building
While the Delhi Sultanate weakened, Babur, a Turkic-Mongol ruler, turned his sights to India and laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire.
Babur's Origins and Conquest
Babur, a descendant of Timur, was thrown out of Samarkand and defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526.
First Battle of Panipat
The First Battle of Panipat heavily relied on newly introduced gunpowder, field artillery, and matchlock guns.
End of Delhi Sultanate
Babur's victory ended the Delhi Sultanate and established the Mughal Empire by assuming control of the Delhi throne.
Baburnama Insights
Babur's autobiography, Baburnama, reveals him as cultured and intellectually curious, with an appreciation for architecture, poetry, and flora.
Brutal Conqueror
Babur was also a brutal and ruthless conqueror, slaughtering entire populations and erecting 'towers of skulls'.
Impressions of India
Babur found India a 'country of few charms' but acknowledged its masses of gold, silver, fine rainy season air, and countless artisans.
Reason for Staying in India
Perhaps India's wealth and resources led him to stay and build his empire rather than return to Central Asia.
Humayun and Sher Shah Suri
After Babur's death in 1530, his son Humayun struggled, leading to Sher Shah Suri's brief establishment of the Sur Empire.
Sher Shah Suri's Reforms
Sher Shah Suri, a powerful Afghan leader, established the Sur Empire over large parts of north India and introduced many lasting reforms.
Humayun's Reconquest
The Sur Empire was short-lived, as Humayun soon reconquered the lost ground.
Himu's Brief Rule
Himu, a skilled military commander, captured Delhi and ruled briefly as Hemchandra Vikramaditya.
Second Battle of Panipat (1556)
Himu was injured and beheaded in the Second Battle of Panipat when confronted by Babur's grandson, Akbar, who reclaimed Delhi.
Akbar's Reign and Empire Expansion
Declared emperor at 13, Akbar's reign (1556-1605) was a blend of brutality and tolerance, shaped by ambition and strategy.
Chittor Fort Conquest
In early conquests, Akbar showed no mercy at Chittor fort, which he besieged for over five months.
Rajput Resistance
Rajput soldiers inflicted heavy losses on the Mughal army, but the fort was finally breached.
Jauhar Practice
Hundreds of Rajput women committed jauhar to avoid capture and enslavement by invading armies.
Jauhar Defined
Jauhar was considered a heroic act of final resistance and a means of preserving one’s honor.
Chittorgarh Example
When Akbar broke into Chittorgarh Fort, hundreds of Rajput women, led by queens, committed jauhar.
Massacre and Enslavement
Akbar ordered the massacre of some 30,000 civilians, and surviving women and children were enslaved.
Akbar's Victory Message
Akbar's message stated he established Islam, erased infidelity, and destroyed temples in conquered places.
Akbar's Political Strategies
As his empire grew, Akbar increasingly used political strategies to stabilize it, alongside conquest.
Conquest Philosophy
Akbar believed 'a monarch should be ever intent on conquest, otherwise his enemies rise in arms against him.'
Marriage Alliances
He entered into marriage alliances with princesses of neighboring kingdoms.
Integration of Leaders
Akbar welcomed Rajput and regional leaders into his court, gaining their support.
Abolition of Jizya
Akbar abolished the jizya tax, a bold reform.
Sulh-i-kul Doctrine
Akbar promoted the doctrine of sulh-i-kul, which means 'peace with all' or tolerance of all faiths.
Interfaith Dialogues
He engaged in interfaith dialogues and appointed Hindu officials in high positions.
Abul Fazl's Record
His court historian Abul Fazl recorded Akbar stating that he found it inappropriate to force others into his faith.
Akbar's Reign Duration
Akbar's long reign lasted almost 50 years, from 1556 to his death in 1605.
Later Military Campaigns
While the middle period was peaceful, the final 15 years involved fresh military campaigns in Kashmir, Sindh, the Deccan, and Afghanistan.
Main idea
Reshaping India’s Political Map
This chapter explores how foreign invasions and new dynasties reshaped India's political boundaries, societal responses to invasions, economic adaptations, and the period's impact on people's lives from the 11th to 17th centuries.
The period covered is often called the latter part of the 'medieval period' of Indian history, meaning 'between two ages'.
Detail
European Medieval Period
The term 'medieval' was originally applied to European history, from the 5th century CE fall of the Roman Empire to the 14th-16th centuries Renaissance.
Insight
Applying 'Medieval' to India
Applying the term 'medieval' to India is not ideal due to different histories, and historians disagree on its exact coverage for India.
Detail
Indian Medieval Period Defined
For this context, 'medieval' simply means the period from the 11th to the 17th centuries in India.
Detail
Chapter Study Approach
The chapters aim to keep few dates, focusing on important reference points, and encourage revisiting timelines and maps for visualization.
Concept
Era of Invasions and Political Reshaping
A new era began in early 11th century India with unprecedented foreign invasions from beyond the Hindu Kush mountains, reshaping the political map.
Detail
Invader Origins and Motivations
Many invaders were Central Asian, Turkic or Afghan, drawn to India for riches, territorial ambitions, and often to spread their religion by force.
Detail
Key Historical Timelines
Important events occurred across several centuries, marking significant political and social shifts in India.
Data
Delhi Sultanate Established
The Delhi Sultanate was established in 1206.
Data
Mewar Kingdom Re-established
The Mewar Kingdom was re-established in 1326.
Data
Vijayanagara Empire Established
The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336.
Data
Bahmani Sultanate Established
The Bahmani Sultanate was established in 1347.
Data
Timur Attacks Delhi
Timur attacked Delhi in 1398.
Data
Portuguese Arrive in India
The Portuguese arrived in India in 1498.
Data
First Battle of Panipat
Babur's victory in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 established the Mughal Empire.
Data
Battle of Talikota
The Battle of Talikota in 1565 resulted in the destruction of Vijayanagara city.
Data
Second Battle of Panipat
Akbar gained a decisive victory in the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556.
Data
Battle of Haldighati
Maharana Pratap was forced to retreat at the Battle of Haldighati in 1576.
Data
Battle of Saraighat
The Ahoms defeated the Mughals at the Battle of Saraighat in 1671.
Data
Khalsa Formation
Guru Gobind Singh formed the Khalsa in 1699.
Data
Maratha Control of Delhi
Maratha control of Delhi began in 1754.
Data
Sikh Empire Established
The Sikh Empire was established in 1799.
Detail
Turkic Definition
Turkic refers to peoples, languages, and cultures historically associated with a vast region from Central Asia to Turkey and Siberia.
Detail
Spelling Variations Explained
Alternative spellings exist for Persian names due to transcription difficulties, such as 'Khalji'/'Khilji' and 'Mughal'/'Moghul'.
Concept
Rise and Fall of Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate began after the defeat of King Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192 and saw the rule of five successive foreign Turkic-Afghan dynasties.
Detail
Sultanate Definition
A Sultanate is a territory ruled by a 'Sultan,' a title adopted by some Muslim rulers.
Detail
Five Dynasties
The Delhi Sultanate included the Mamluks, Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis.
Detail
Resistance to Expansion
Neighboring kingdoms like the Eastern Gangas and Hoysalas resisted the Sultanate's advance and thrived as cultural centers.
Detail
Delhi's Political Role
The city of Delhi assumed a bigger role in the political landscape of northern India during this period.
Concept
Sultanate's Political Instability
The Sultanate period was marked by political instability, territorial expansion efforts, military campaigns, and violent successions.
Detail
Military Campaigns and Plunder
Military campaigns raided villages, cities, plundered, and destroyed temples and seats of learning.
Detail
Violent Successions
Almost two out of three sultans seized power by eliminating their predecessor.
Data
Sultan's Average Reign
A sultan's average reign was hardly more than nine years.
Detail
Ala-ud-din Khilji's Campaigns
At the turn of the 14th century, Ala-ud-din Khilji conducted military campaigns in north and central India and repelled Mongol invasions.
Detail
Malik Kafur's Southern Expansion
Ala-ud-din Khilji's slave-general Malik Kafur expanded the Sultanate southward, conquering kingdoms and attacking Hindu centers.
Concept
Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Rule
Muhammad bin Tughlaq expanded the Delhi Sultanate's territories, bringing most of the Subcontinent under one ruler, though it was short-lived.
Detail
Poorly Executed Schemes
Muhammad bin Tughlaq had ambitious schemes, but they were often poorly executed, like moving the capital.
Detail
Capital Transfer
Moving the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad and back caused great loss of life according to some sources.
Detail
Token Currency Introduction
The introduction of token currency (cheap copper coins valued as silver/gold) created confusion and counterfeiting, causing economic decline.
Concept
Sultanate Wealth and Practices
Sultans and their court elite lived luxuriously, deriving wealth from plunder, taxes, and slave trade.
Detail
Sources of Wealth
Wealth came largely from plunder from military campaigns, taxes on common people and conquered regions, and slave trade.
Detail
Impact of Plunder
Plunder affected trade networks and agricultural production.
Concept
Iconoclasm During Sultanate
This period witnessed numerous attacks on sacred images in Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu temples, motivated by plunder and iconoclasm.
Detail
Iconoclasm Defined
Iconoclasm is the rejection or destruction of icons or religious images considered idolatrous.
Reason
Using Neutral Term 'Image'
The term 'image' is used instead of 'idol' or 'icon' because the latter are pejorative in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Detail
Classical Indian Terms
India's classical texts used words like mūrti, vigraha, pratimā, rūpa to designate images for worship.
Concept
Jizya Tax Imposed
Some sultans imposed the jizya, a tax on non-Muslim subjects for protection and military exemption.
Detail
Jizya Consequences
This discriminatory tax was a source of economic burden, public humiliation, and an incentive for conversion to Islam.
Concept
Timur's Devastating Invasion
At the end of the 14th century, Timur, a brutal Turkic-Mongol conqueror, invaded northwest India and launched a devastating attack on Delhi.
Detail
Timur's Objectives
Timur's two-fold objective was to wage 'war with the infidels' and 'to gain something by plundering the wealth of the infidels'.
Detail
Consequences for Delhi
Large numbers were killed or enslaved, and Delhi was left in ruins after Timur soon withdrew with huge plunder.
Detail
Infidel Definition
An 'infidel' literally means someone who does not share the faith of a given religion.
Detail
Lodis Emerge and Decline
In the aftermath of Timur's invasion, the Lodis emerged and established the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, whose territory had shrunk considerably.
Concept
Resistance to Delhi Sultanate
Throughout its rule, the Delhi Sultanate faced significant resistance from various Indian kingdoms.
Concept
Eastern Ganga Kingdom's Resistance
The Eastern Ganga kingdom of Kalinga, including parts of Odisha, Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh, successfully resisted the Sultanate's advance.
Detail
Narasimhadeva I's Achievements
Narasimhadeva I, a mid-13th century ruler, brought military strength and cultural brilliance to the kingdom, repelling Sultanate incursions.
Example
Surya Temple at Konark
Narasimhadeva I built the famed Sūrya temple at Konark, partly to commemorate his victories.
Example
Musunuri Nayakas Confederacy
Telugu chieftains, the Musunuri Nayakas, formed a confederacy of over 75 chieftains and expelled Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s army from Warangal around 1330-1336.
Concept
Hoysala Kingdom's Struggle
The Hoysalas ruled parts of southern India and fended off several Delhi Sultanate attacks, remaining independent for a time.
Detail
Hoysala Decline
Weakened by attacks and internal conflicts, the Hoysala kingdom declined and was absorbed into the Vijayanagara Empire in the mid-14th century.
Detail
Hoysalas' Emblem Story
Kannada folklore narrates the story of Sala fighting a lion to save his guru, giving the dynasty its name ‘Hoy (strike)! Sala’.
Concept
Rise of Regional Sultanates
The Delhi Sultanate also faced rebellions from emerging independent regional Sultanates, leading to complex alliances and frequent wars.
Detail
Bahmani Sultanate's Rise
The Bahmani Sultanate rose in the mid-14th century and controlled much of the Deccan for a while.
Detail
Other Powerful Sultanates
Powerful Sultanates also emerged in Gujarat and Bengal.
Concept
Mewar Kingdom's Resistance
Parts of Rajasthan, particularly the Mewar kingdom under Rana Kumbha in the 15th century, offered stiff resistance to the Delhi Sultanate.
Detail
Rana Title
Rana is a title often used for Rajput kings.
Example
Kumbhalgarh Fort
Rana Kumbha built Kumbhalgarh Fort in the 15th century, famous for its massive 36-kilometre-long wall.
Concept
The Vijayanagara Empire
As the Delhi Sultanate weakened, a new center of power emerged in the south with the establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire in the 14th century.
Detail
Establishment by Harihara and Bukka
Two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, rejected Delhi’s authority and established an independent kingdom that grew into the Vijayanagara Empire.
Example
Hampi's Symbolism
Folklore states that Harihara and Bukka established their capital at Hampi after witnessing a hare chase hounds, symbolizing unexpected strength.
Concept
Rivalries and Conflicts
The Vijayanagara Empire faced rivalry from the Bahmani Sultanate, which later fragmented into the Deccan Sultanates.
Detail
Deccan Sultanates
The Bahmani Sultanate fragmented into five independent states: Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar, and Bidar.
Detail
Battles with Neighbors
Vijayanagara rulers battled with Bijapur, Golconda, and the Gajapati rulers of Odisha.
Detail
Titles Signifying Power
The term 'pati,' meaning 'lord' or 'master,' was commonly used in titles like Narapati (Vijayanagara), Ashwapati (Bahmani), and Chhatrapati (Maratha).
Concept
Krishnadevaraya's Peak Rule
In the 16th century, the Vijayanagara Empire reached its peak under Krishnadevaraya, achieving military dominance and cultural renaissance.
Detail
Cultural Patronage
Krishnadevaraya patronised poets and scholars in Sanskrit, Telugu, and Kannada.
Example
Āmuktamālyada Poem
He composed an epic poem in Telugu, Āmuktamālyada, which included a Rājanīti (royal policy) section on good governance.
Detail
Temple Grants
Krishnadevaraya provided grants to many temples, including Tirupati and the Vitthala temple in his capital.
Detail
Treatment of Portuguese Travellers
Portuguese travellers were well treated for trade, as the king desired horses and wanted to prevent sales to enemy kingdoms.
Example
Domingo Paes's Description
Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes described Vijayanagara as a city 'as large as Rome', beautiful, with groves, water conduits, and countless people.
Concept
Decline of Vijayanagara
After Krishnadevaraya's death in 1529, the empire faced its downfall with the Battle of Talikota and subsequent fragmentation.
Detail
Battle of Talikota (1565)
In 1565, Deccan Sultanates formed a coalition, defeating Vijayanagara forces at the Battle of Talikota.
Detail
City's Destruction
The city of Vijayanagara was sacked over several months, with widespread destruction of buildings and massacre of civilians.
Detail
Empire Fragmentation
The empire fragmented into smaller regions ruled by Nayakas and came to an end in the mid-17th century.
Concept
The Mughals and Empire Building
While the Delhi Sultanate weakened, Babur, a Turkic-Mongol ruler, turned his sights to India and laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire.
Detail
Babur's Origins and Conquest
Babur, a descendant of Timur, was thrown out of Samarkand and defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526.
Detail
First Battle of Panipat
The First Battle of Panipat heavily relied on newly introduced gunpowder, field artillery, and matchlock guns.
Detail
End of Delhi Sultanate
Babur's victory ended the Delhi Sultanate and established the Mughal Empire by assuming control of the Delhi throne.
Concept
Baburnama Insights
Babur's autobiography, Baburnama, reveals him as cultured and intellectually curious, with an appreciation for architecture, poetry, and flora.
Detail
Brutal Conqueror
Babur was also a brutal and ruthless conqueror, slaughtering entire populations and erecting 'towers of skulls'.
Detail
Impressions of India
Babur found India a 'country of few charms' but acknowledged its masses of gold, silver, fine rainy season air, and countless artisans.
Reason
Reason for Staying in India
Perhaps India's wealth and resources led him to stay and build his empire rather than return to Central Asia.
Concept
Humayun and Sher Shah Suri
After Babur's death in 1530, his son Humayun struggled, leading to Sher Shah Suri's brief establishment of the Sur Empire.
Detail
Sher Shah Suri's Reforms
Sher Shah Suri, a powerful Afghan leader, established the Sur Empire over large parts of north India and introduced many lasting reforms.
Detail
Humayun's Reconquest
The Sur Empire was short-lived, as Humayun soon reconquered the lost ground.
Detail
Himu's Brief Rule
Himu, a skilled military commander, captured Delhi and ruled briefly as Hemchandra Vikramaditya.
Detail
Second Battle of Panipat (1556)
Himu was injured and beheaded in the Second Battle of Panipat when confronted by Babur's grandson, Akbar, who reclaimed Delhi.
Concept
Akbar's Reign and Empire Expansion
Declared emperor at 13, Akbar's reign (1556-1605) was a blend of brutality and tolerance, shaped by ambition and strategy.
Concept
Chittor Fort Conquest
In early conquests, Akbar showed no mercy at Chittor fort, which he besieged for over five months.
Detail
Rajput Resistance
Rajput soldiers inflicted heavy losses on the Mughal army, but the fort was finally breached.
Concept
Jauhar Practice
Hundreds of Rajput women committed jauhar to avoid capture and enslavement by invading armies.
Detail
Jauhar Defined
Jauhar was considered a heroic act of final resistance and a means of preserving one’s honor.
Example
Chittorgarh Example
When Akbar broke into Chittorgarh Fort, hundreds of Rajput women, led by queens, committed jauhar.
Detail
Massacre and Enslavement
Akbar ordered the massacre of some 30,000 civilians, and surviving women and children were enslaved.
Detail
Akbar's Victory Message
Akbar's message stated he established Islam, erased infidelity, and destroyed temples in conquered places.
Concept
Akbar's Political Strategies
As his empire grew, Akbar increasingly used political strategies to stabilize it, alongside conquest.
Reason
Conquest Philosophy
Akbar believed 'a monarch should be ever intent on conquest, otherwise his enemies rise in arms against him.'
Detail
Marriage Alliances
He entered into marriage alliances with princesses of neighboring kingdoms.
Detail
Integration of Leaders
Akbar welcomed Rajput and regional leaders into his court, gaining their support.
Detail
Abolition of Jizya
Akbar abolished the jizya tax, a bold reform.
Concept
Sulh-i-kul Doctrine
Akbar promoted the doctrine of sulh-i-kul, which means 'peace with all' or tolerance of all faiths.
Detail
Interfaith Dialogues
He engaged in interfaith dialogues and appointed Hindu officials in high positions.
Detail
Abul Fazl's Record
His court historian Abul Fazl recorded Akbar stating that he found it inappropriate to force others into his faith.
Data
Akbar's Reign Duration
Akbar's long reign lasted almost 50 years, from 1556 to his death in 1605.
Detail
Later Military Campaigns
While the middle period was peaceful, the final 15 years involved fresh military campaigns in Kashmir, Sindh, the Deccan, and Afghanistan.
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